Now showing items 1-20 of 12851

    • Data Submission Package for Manuscript 'Moving beyond the physical impervious surface impact and urban habitat fragmentation of Alaska: Quantitative Human Footprint Inference from the first large Scale 30m high-resolution Landscape Metrics Big Data Quantification in R and the Cloud' - MS2

      Huettmann, Falk; Steiner, Moriz (2024-12-10)
      With increased globalization, man-made climate change, and urbanization, the landscape – embedded within the Anthropocene - becomes increasingly fragmented. With habitats transitioning and getting lost, globally relevant regions considered ‘pristine', such as Alaska, are no exception. Alaska holds 60% of the U.S. National Park system’s area and is of national and international importance, considering the U.S. is one of the wealthiest nations on earth. These characteristics tie into densities and quantities of human features, e.g., roads, houses, mines, wind parks, agriculture, trails, etc., that can be summarized as ‘impervious surfaces.’ Those are physical impacts and actively affecting urban-driven landscape fragmentation. Using the remote sensing data of the National Land Cover Database (NLCD; https://www.mrlc.gov/data/nlcd-2016-land-cover-alaska ), here we attempt to create the first quantification of this physical human impact on the Alaskan landscape and its fragmentation. We quantified these impacts using the well-established landscape metrics tool ‘Fragstats’, implemented as the R package “landscapemetrics” in the desktop software and through the interface of a Linux Cloud-computing environment. This workflow allows for the first time to overcome the computational limitations of the conventional Fragstats software within a reasonably quick timeframe. Thereby, we are able to analyze a land area as large as approx. 1,517,733 km2 (state of Alaska) while maintaining a high assessment resolution of 30 meters. Based on this traditional methodology, we found that Alaska has a reported physical human impact of c. 0.067%. But when assessed, we additionally overlaid other features that were not included in the input data to highlight the overall true human impact (e.g., roads, trails, airports, governance boundaries in game management and park units, mines, etc.). We found that using remote sensing (human impact layers), Alaska’s human impact is considerably underestimated to a meaningless estimate (0.067%). The state is more seriously fragmented and affected by humans than commonly assumed. Very few areas are truly untouched and display a high patch density with corresponding low mean patch sizes throughout the study area. Instead, the true human impact is likely close to 100% throughout Alaska for several metrics. With these newly created insights, we provide the first state-wide landscape data and inference that are likely of considerable importance for land management entities in the state of Alaska, and for the U.S. National Park systems overall, especially in the changing climate. Likewise, the methodological framework presented here shows an Open Access workflow and can be used as a reference to be reproduced virtually anywhere else on the planet to assess more realistic large-scale landscape metrics. It can also be used to assess human impacts on the landscape for more sustainable landscape stewardship and mitigation in policy.
    • Dynamo action in the ionosphere and motions of the magnetospheric plasma

      DeWitt, Ronald N. (1965-07)
      This thesis presents a study of the dynamic interaction which takes place between the magnetospheric plasma and the underlying neutral atmosphere; it is hoped thus to gain a better understanding of the effects of this interaction upon the steady state configuration of the magnetosphere. The neutral portion of the atmosphere (the neutrosphere) and the overlying ionized regions (the upper atmosphere and magnetosphere) may be regarded as two distinct dynamic domains that interact in a region of transition occurring between 100 and 150 km over the earth. The neutrosphere because of its greater mass will dominate the motion, and the magnetospheric plasma can be expected to undergo motions related to those of the upper neutrosphere and transition region. However, the geomagnetic field restricts the motion of the magnetospheric plasma to a particular class, allowing one to consider the magnetospheric motion to be constrained. Motions in the transition region of the class not permitted the magnetospheric plasma will give rise to forces against the constraint. The reaction of the constraint on the atmosphere of the transition region takes the form of a Lorentz force J x B where J is the current responsible for the well known solar quiet day daily magnetic variation (Sq). The explanation for the production of this current in the transition region has traditionally been presented in terms of a dynamo-like electromotive force generated by motions of the conducting atmosphere through the magnetic field, whence the transition region is aptly named the dynamo region. The Lorentz force represented by this current constitutes a significant term in the equation of motion for the dynamo region. Another important term arises from eddy viscous stresses immediately below the dynamo region. The equation of motion for the dynamo region must thus include such forces as well as the pressure gradient and Coriolis terms. However, our almost total ignorance of the eddy viscous stress field at the lower surface of the dynamo layer at present precludes our deducing the entire dynamo layer winds from the observed Sq magnetic variation. The kinematics of the dynamo layer are discussed and the motion or the dynamo layer is divided into a symmetric and an antisymmetric part. The term symmetric is here used to describe winds in the northern and southern hemisphere that are the mirror images of each other with respect to the equatorial plane. It is demonstrated that the symmetric component gives rise to electrostatic fields transverse to the field lines, but to no currents along the field lines, while the antisymmetric case produces the converse effects. The symmetric and antisymmetric winds are further divided into components according to the horizontal electromotive force they produce. (a) Symmetric Wind. In the case of the symmetric wind, only the portion of the wind producing the solenoidal component of the horizontal dynamo electromotive force is effective in producing ionospheric currents. It is demonstrated that only this current producing wind system acts against the constraints imposed by the geomagnetic field on magnetospheric motions. The motion of the magnetospheric plasma driven by each such wind system is discussed. The earlier treatments of the dynamo theory consider the dynamo region to be a single layer in which the wind system and the electric conductivity are assumed to be uniform in height. A new, more general derivation of the layer's dynamo action is given in which no restrictions are placed upon the vertical distributions. An effective wind is defined which permits the use of the earlier equations relating the current function, the electrostatic field, and the scalar field describing the current producing part of the effective wind. The equation relating the electrostatic field and the current function is essentially that employed by Maeda (1956), allowing his solution for the portion of the electrostatic field associated with the current producing wind to remain unaffected by the stratification of the wind system. Mathematical techniques for solving the dynamo equations for the electrostatic field are developed. These allow for a quite general conductivity distribution over the globe, only requiring that it be expressible in surface harmonics. The effect of undetected zonal currents upon the solution for the electrostatic field is discussed. It is suggested that a considerable diurnal component of electrostatic field and other components as well may be hidden from us by our inability to detect the prevailing magnetic perturbations produced by zonal currents. The electrostatic field associated with the non-current producing components of the symmetric wind is likewise hidden from us. (b) Antisymmetric Wind. The equations for the current driven by the antisymmetric component of wind are derived, and some of the effects of such currents are discussed. It is found that the conduction of current along the field lines from one hemisphere to the other is associated with an interhemispheric stress between geomagnetically conjugate points of order 3 x 10⁻⁷ newtons/meter². In addition it is found that an antisymmetric layer current density of 5 amperes/km into the polar cap region (across the 75° latitude circle) might give rise to a displacement of about 150 km in the relative position of the conjugate points defined by field lines of the magnetospheric tail. It is suggested that the dynamo action in the 100 to 150 km height plays a role in determining the manner in which the magnetosphere divides itself into the corotating region and the magnetospheric tail.
    • Gulf of Alaska Limitations Report

      Watson, Brett; Burke, Noah (2024-06-15)
      Executive Summary The purpose of this report is to document economic and demographic changes for communities of the Gulf of Alaska, Southcentral Alaska, and Southeast Alaska over the period of 1950 to 2023. Over this period several major changes were made to the way that State and Federal commercial fisheries were managed in Alaska waters. These changes -particularly the introduction of the Limited Entry program in the mid-1970s and individual fishing quotas in the mid-1990’s - limited access to fisheries. Changes to fisheries access has implications not just for the fisherman directly included or excluded, but also more broadly to their home communities through the economic spillover effects that the fishing industry creates. Watson et al., (2021) shows that the impacts of the commercial fishing industry in Alaska extends beyond the income it provides to vessel captains. Fishing activity also provides for crew member and shore-side processing jobs and spillover effects into upstream and downstream industries. It also creates broader induced economic effects as income and wages are spent on local goods and services. However, as Watson et al., (2021) shows, these effects only tend to materialize in the home communities of fishermen. In other words, economic impacts follow fishermen.
    • Effects on Households of a Proposed Anchorage Municipal Sales Tax

      Berman, Matthew; Burke, Noah (2024-10)
      Executive Summary A coalition of Anchorage business leaders has proposed a sales tax for the Municipality of Anchorage. The tax would be levied at 3% of taxable expenditures. The proposal would allocate 2/3 of the revenues from the tax (2% of taxable expenditures) allocated to property tax relief, and the remaining one third (one percent of taxable expenditures) set aside to fund a capital improvements program. The tax would be temporary, set to expire after about 8 years. A study led by Nolan Klouda at the University of Alaska Anchorage Center for Economic Development (CED) estimated that the proposed sales tax would generate $180 million annually, with 16% of the total paid by non-Anchorage residents. A subsequent update sponsored by Project Anchorage initiative proponents also estimated that the tax would collect $180 million in total but projected 21% would be contributed by non-residents. The current study revisited the assumptions and data used by the previous reports, and after making minor accounting adjustments, confirmed the total revenue estimate of about $180 million, but with 20.5% ($37 million) derived from non-residents. It took a closer look at the $143 million estimated to be collected from residents and the property tax offsets these households might expect, focusing on the distribution of impacts across Anchorage households with different incomes.
    • Improved contrail forecasting techniques for the subarctic setting of Fairbanks, Alaska

      Wendler, Gerd; Steufer, Martin; Moore, Blake; Boussard, J.; Cole, C.; Curtis, J.; Nakanishi, S.; Robb, M.; Stone, H. (2002-08)
      Jet contrails can be frequently observed in the subarctic setting of Fairbanks, Alaska, much like in the contiguous United States. Since March of 2000, continuous digital imagery of the sky was obtained, supported by FAA flight data and radiosonde ascents at the Fairbanks International Airport. There were a total of 2504 over-flights (March 2000-July 2002) at Fairbanks, but for a great number of these, contrail observations were not possible due to clouds and/or darkness. For 590 cases, the formation of contrails could be confirmed; their life span varied widely from a few seconds to several hours. In general, cold temperatures and high relative humidity at flight level favored the formation of contrails. These conditions are frequently found in the upper troposphere close to the tropopause. Using our substantial database, different existing algorithms were tested and, in part, improved in order to predict contrail formation and lifetime. The best results were obtained with an algorithm described by Schumann (1996) and an aircraft specific contrail factor of 0.036 g/kgK. For contrails within 4 hours of the radiosonde ascents, a combined hit rate for correctly forecasting the occurrence and non-occurrence of contrails of 92% was obtained.
    • College step sounding equipment, recording systems, and operating parameters from 1963 to 1965

      Bates, Howard F.; Teas, J. A. (Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1966-05)
    • Maritime Guidance for Distant and Local Source Tsunami Events: Chenega Bay, Alaska

      Nicolsky, Dmitry; Suleimani, Elena; Gardine, Lea (Alaska Earthquake Center, 2020-02-27)
      These documents provide response guidance for Chenega Bay in the event of tsunamis for small vessels such as recreational sailing and motor vessels, and commercial fishing vessels. The developed documents follow the guidance developed by the National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP) and are based on anticipated effects of a maximum-considered distant and locally generated tsunami event.
    • Equitable Compensation to Attract and Retain Qualified Teachers in High-Need Alaska Public Schools

      Berman, Matthew; DeFeo, Dayna Jean (Sage Journals, 2023-06-23)
      Measuring the appropriate level of teacher compensation for different working conditions requires overcoming a number of empirical challenges, including defining and measuring differences in qualifications, effects of non-wage compensation, financial constraints, and lack of market clearing. We address those challenges in a study of teacher compensation in Alaska’s 462 public schools in 53 districts. Each of our three linked empirical specifications produces a set of different compensation adjustments needed to offset differences in working conditions across schools and communities. However, an overall pattern is clear: if districts wish to attract and retain teachers of similar qualifications across all schools, schools serving mainly racially minoritized and low-income populations will need to pay substantially more than they currently do. Estimated required compensation adjustments are quite large in some cases, illustrating the need to address working conditions and other factors that affect teachers’ choices to accept and stay in jobs at high-need schools.
    • A rising tide that lifts all boats: Long-term effects of the Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend on poverty

      Berman, Matthew (Wiley Periodicals, 2024-05-27)
      Although not designed as a social program to redistribute income, the Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend (PFD) has been reducing poverty by providing equal annual payments to nearly all state residents for over 40 years. We examine direct effects of the PFD on Alaska poverty rates since 1990, using US Census and American Community Survey Public Use Microdata Sample records to adjust for under-reporting of children's PFD income in official statistics. We estimate that the PFD reduced the number of Alaskans with incomes below the US poverty threshold by 20%–40%. We measure only a small effect on income distribution: a 0.02 reduction in the Gini coefficient. The effect of the PFD has been even larger for vulnerable populations. The PFD has reduced poverty rates of rural Indigenous Alaskans from 28% to less than 22%, and has played an important role in alleviating poverty among seniors and children. Aside from the special case of 2020, up to 50% more Alaska children—15% instead of 10%—would be living in poor families without PFD income. The poverty-ameliorating effects of the PFD have lessened somewhat since 2000, as dividend amounts adjusted for inflation have been declining.
    • Long-term effects of group rights to fisheries: Evaluating the Western Alaska Community Development Quota program

      Berman, Matthew (2024-12-02)
      Restricting access to fisheries and other common property resources through creation of individual transferable rights has been documented to create wealth and promote conservation, but has also reduced employment and increased inequality in fishing communities. Creating group rights instead of individual rights has been suggested as an alternative strategy that could realize the benefits with diminished social cost; however, little independent evaluation of actual implementations of group rights to fisheries has occurred. The Western Alaska Community Development Quota (CDQ) program represents an example of allocation of group fishery rights to six not-for-profit organizations representing 65 small, largely Indigenous coastal communities. Using a unique data set of individual and household survey records spanning more than 25 years, we applied a difference-in-differences approach to measure changes in a variety of social and economic indicators, including Indigenous language use and educational attainment, employment, earnings, income, and poverty status, while controlling for demographic and general economic changes over the years. We found significant differences in outcomes for individuals and households in CDQ-participating communities from those residing in nearby communities ineligible for participation. Differences were especially pronounced for earnings and income. Results suggest that group rights can provide significant social benefits. The relatively small community populations provides insufficient power to determine statistically whether the benefits of the CDQ program have been increasing or diminishing over the years, or whether some communities have benefited more than others.
    • Data Submission Package for Manuscript 'Moving beyond the physical impervious surface impact and urban habitat fragmentation of Alaska: Quantitative Human Footprint Inference from the first large Scale 30m high-resolution Landscape Metrics Big Data Quantification in R and the Cloud'

      2024-11-05
      With increased globalization, man-made climate change, and urbanization the landscape – embedded within the Pyrocene as part of the Anthropocene - becomes increasingly more fragmented, with habitats transitioning and getting lost; globally relevant regions considered ‘pristine' such as Alaska are no exception. Alaska holds 60% of the U.S. National Park system’s area and is of national and international importance, considering the U.S. is one of the wealthiest nations on earth. Roads, houses, mines, wind parks, agriculture, trails, etc. are just a few of the features humans created that can be summarized as ‘impervious surfaces’. Those are physical impacts and actively affecting urban-driven landscape fragmentation. Using the remote sensing data of the National Land Cover Database (NLCD; https://www.mrlc.gov/data/nlcd-2016-land-cover-alaska ), here we attempt to create the first quantification of this physical human impact on the Alaskan landscape and its fragmentation. We quantified these impacts using the well-established landscape metrics tool ‘Fragstats’, implemented as the R package “landscapemetrics” in the desktop software and through the interface of a Linux Cloud-computing environment. This workflow allows for the first time to overcome the computational limitations of the conventional Fragstats software within a reasonably quick timeframe. Thereby, we are able to analyze a land area as large as approx. 1,517,733 km2 (state of Alaska) while maintaining a high assessment resolution of 30 meters. Based on this traditional methodology, we found that Alaska has a reported physical human impact of c. 0.067%. But when assessed, we additionally overlaid other features that were not included in the input data to highlight the overall true human impact (including governances in game management unit boundaries, park boundaries, mines, etc.). We found that using remote sensing, Alaska’s human impact is actually considerably underestimated to a meaningless estimate and that the state is more seriously fragmented and affected by humans than commonly assumed. Very few areas are truly untouched and overall it displays a high patch density with corresponding low mean patch sizes throughout the study area. Instead, the true human impact is likely close to 100% throughout Alaska for several metrics. With these newly created insights, we provide the first state-wide landscape data and inference that are likely of considerable importance for land management entities in the state of Alaska, and for the U.S. National Park systems overall, especially in the changing climate. Likewise, the methodological framework presented here shows an Open Access workflow and can be used as a reference to be reproduced virtually anywhere else on the planet to assess more realistic large-scale landscape metrics and human impacts on the landscape in an Open GIS environment for more sustainable landscape stewardship and mitigation in policy.
    • Telluric current micropulsations at the auroral zone

      Hessler, Victor Peter; Heacock, Richard R. (Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1967-10)
      This report presents analysis of individual events and statistical results derived from several years of continuous Pc 1 recording at College, using the telluric current technique. Histograms of occurrence distributions versus Kₚ and versus pulse period, together with sonagrams, justify dividing Pc 1 into two main classes. Class 1 activity has pulse periods mainly shorter than 3 sec, is usually structured, has a pronounced mid-day maximum in occurrence, not much seasonal variation in occurrence, and has little occurrence relationship to Kₚ except for a tendency to be absent when Kₚ is large. Class 2 Pc 1 activity has periods usually longer than 2 sec, is usually unstructured, has a very pronounced afternoon maximum in occurrence at College, a seasonal maximum in summer, and has a positive correlation with Kₚ. Class 1 activity may originate mainly in closed field line regions and Class 2 in open field line regions. Class 1 mid-frequencies tend to rise as Kₚ rises and tend to be higher at night than in the daytime. Average Pc 1 amplitudes maximize in daytime at College as do the occurrences. Thus there is an extreme daytime maximum in summed amplitudes, indicating that the Pc 1 incident energy has a pronounced daytime maximum at College. College sonagrams of Pc 1 events show a great variety of frequency-time forms. Rising frequency periodic structures are most common, but falling frequencies are often seen sometimes superimposed on rising events. At times narrow band “necklaces” are clearly seen. Long duration structured events were observed with durations up to 18 hours. The long events tended to occur only at times of rather low Kₚ.
    • Sea ice strength

      Peyton, H. R. (Harold R.) (1966-12)
      This report contains the results from a study of the mechanical and structural properties of sea ice; the study commenced in 1958 and was completed in late 1965. Most of the experimental work is based upon stress-strain tests in both direct compression and direct tension. Approximately 3800 of these tests were made. Those parameters anticipated to have significant effect upon strength were measured: temperature, salinity, rate of loading, crystal size, crystallographic orientation, history of the ice and depth in the ice sheet. All of these are found to be significant except that the history factor itself tended to be determined by the other parameters. The analysis was accomplished primarily by the testing of models by linear multiple regression. The models selected yield good results with multiple correlation coefficients between 0.70 and 0.98 over a range of petrofabric types. Sea ice is shown to be complex and its description requires five classifications of petrofabric types, each of which exhibit somewhat different characteristics. The load rate proved to be a highly significant parameter in both strength and stiffness in most cases. Ice failing in tension is somewhat less sensitive to load rate than is ice in compression. The interrelated effects of salinity and temperature were studied using the brine volume concept. This study yielded positive confirmation of the brine volume concept, evidence of solid salt reinforcement, and evidence of failure plane selectivity to bypass strongly reinforced planes. These aspects pertain to both tension and compression failure modes. Depth in the ice sheet is shown to be a strength factor when related to each of three parameters; rate of loading, brine volume and solid salt reinforcement. Additional work accomplished in conjunction with construction of large offshore oil drilling platforms had provided significant information concerning oscillatory failure of sea ice in compression and strength reduction at very high load rates. The ice failure force oscillation is an ice property and is not primarily a function of the response of the structure. The amplitude of oscillation is large and at a frequency in the range of most space frame structures. The failing ice may cause forced resonant vibration in structures, and the forces are large enough to resonantly vibrate structure weighing several thousand tons.
    • Access, Equity, and Safety in Rural Road Development: Historical Evidence from the Dalton Highway, 1974-2024

      Wight, Philip; Belz, Nathan (2024-11)
      This study investigates the historical example of the construction of the Dalton Highway—the most significant new road built in Alaska since 1971—to analyze how historical changes in access (both new infrastructures and access policies) and equity (who decides, who benefits, who is seen as a stakeholder) have impacted safety, broadly defined, in rural, isolated, tribal, and indigenous (RITI) communities throughout Northern Alaska.
    • Geomagnetic influences on thermospheric winds observed in the auroral zone

      Wallis, Donald Douglas James Herbert; Romick, Gerald J. (1974-05)
      A large body of observations of the wind field in the high-latitude thermosphere (140 to 350 km) is examined to characterize the winds and to determine their probably source. Theories and existing models of these winds are first reviewed. The morphologies of auroral particle precipitation, electric fields, and current systems are discussed to elucidate the effects of these factors upon the wind field. Existing models suggest that the effects of auroral electric fields and heating can be separated in a geomagnetic coordinate frame. It is shown, in this study, that the mean temporal dependence of the (geomagnetic) meridional component is similar to that predicted by tidal models except the magnitudes of the observed winds are smaller than predicted (observed peak speeds – 150 m sec⁻¹). Deviations (up to 200 m sec⁻¹) of the observed meridional winds from this mean behavior are probably caused by heating of the thermosphere by Joule dissipation in the auroral electrojets. Zonal winds are shown to be principally driven by collisions of the neutrals with ions drifting under the action of the auroral zone electric field. Zonal speeds from 200 to 400 m sec⁻¹ are typical. The observed zonal winds are correlated with the direction of the auroral electric fields as inferred from magnetometer records. The response time of the observed winds to changes in direction of the electric field (northward to southward) is found to be ≈ 1¹/₂ hours. Tidal winds are of secondary importance for the zonal component (peak speeds ≈ 150 m sec⁻¹). Electric fields and Joule dissipation in the high-latitude thermosphere are concluded to be responsible for the principal observed characteristics of auroral-zone thermospheric winds.
    • Learning from the Permafrost & Infrastructure Symposium: merging science, engineering, and community-based knowledge

      Peirce, J.L. (2024-06)
      The 2023 Permafrost & Infrastructure Symposium brought over 30 Arctic scientists, engineers, planners, and policymakers to Northern Alaska to see the impacts of permafrost thaw on roads and community infrastructure firsthand and to learn from those who live and work in the Arctic. For the symposium’s first half (July 28–August 1), participants gathered at the Barrow Arctic Research Center in Utqiaġvik for presentations, field trips and discussions focused on critical climate-related issues prioritized by local governments on the North Slope. They were joined in Utqiaġvik by key personnel from the North Slope Borough (NSB), regional housing authority, local utility cooperative, and the Alaska Native villages of Point Lay and Wainwright. Twenty participants flew to Deadhorse, Alaska, for the start of the second half of the symposium (August 1–5), which focused on transportation infrastructure and permafrost landscapes in Prudhoe Bay and south along the 416-mile Dalton Highway towards Fairbanks. A closing half-day session at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) Usibelli Engineering Learning and Innovation Building explored climate adaptation planning strategies with talks by the Commissioner of Alaska DOT&PF and the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Office of the Secretary. The symposium produced recommendations for the future.
    • Safe Reinforcement Learning for Intersection Management in RITI Communities Under Rare Extreme Events

      Xiao, Yuanzhang (2024-11)
      The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping the transportation sector, with applications spanning autonomous vehicles, driver injury prevention, and traffic management. Efficient traffic management, particularly through adaptive intersection control, holds significant potential for reducing congestion. This study explores the application of reinforcement learning (RL) to adaptive traffic signal control in rural, isolated, tribal, and indigenous (RITI) communities, which face unique challenges such as rare extreme weather events. Standard RL approaches struggle in these contexts due to limited exposure to these rare events. In our study, we first evaluate several mainstream RL algorithms and identified two most promising approaches. Then, we propose to use offline RL algorithms, which can train on existing datasets before interacting with the real environments. This provides a robust solution because (1) it is costly to deploy the algorithm and let the traffic network operate under suboptimal policies before the algorithm learns the optimal policy, and (2) it mimics the scenario where some events are not seen in the training dataset. We compare the performance of offline RL algorithms using different offline datasets, generated by policies of different levels of expertise, in realistic test cases. Results indicate that offline RL approaches perform better when trained on datasets from expert policies, stressing the importance of the quality of the offline datasets. These findings highlight the potential of RL-based adaptive traffic control for improving transportation efficiency, especially when tailored to the specific conditions of RITI communities.