Optical spectroscopic observations of sprites, blue jets, and elves: Inferred microphysical processes and their macrophysical implications

Matthew James Heavner
Wed, 22 Apr 2026 18:26:47 PDT

During the past decade, several new upper atmospheric phenomena associated with thunderstorms have been discovered. The four main types of optical emissions are now called sprites, blue jets, lves, and halos. Sprites are primarily red and appear between 40--95 km altitude and last between 1--100 ms. The dominant sprite emission is the molecular nitrogen first positive band, a relatively low energy emission also observed in the red lower borders of aurorae. The total optical energy output of a bright sprite is on the order of 50 kJ. Based on spectral observations, the total vibrational and electronic energy deposited in molecular nitrogen and oxygen in the upper atmosphere is 250 MJ-1 GJ. Blue jets last hundreds of milliseconds and span altitudes 15--40 km. Spectral observations of blue jets have not been obtained to date. Elves, the third type of observed optical emissions above thunderstorms, are red emissions at altitudes 75--95 km, lasting one millisecond or less. Elves and halos are similar phenomena, but are distinct based on altitude and duration. Halos typically last 3--6 ms and occur at lower altitudes than elves. This dissertation describes the optical spectrum of sprites obtained by the University of Alaska Fairbanks during summer campaigns of 1995, 1996, and 1998, and its implication to the understanding of the electrodynamics of the middle atmosphere. The single most significant result is the determination that a typical sprite deposits up to one gigajoule into the mesosphere. These forms of electrical energy coupling from tropospheric thunderstorms into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere/ionosphere may have critical implications for the global chemistry and energy budgets in these regions.